Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

Discussion: Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy
Understanding the strengths of each type of therapy and which type of therapy is most appropriate for each client is an essential skill of the Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner. In this Discussion, you will compare Existential-Humanistic therapy to a therapy you select from the previous weeks of this course. You will identify the strengths and challenges of each and describe a fictional client that you think is best suited for each.Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

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Learning Objectives
Students will:
Compare types of psychotherapy
To prepare:

Review this week’s Learning Resources
Review this week’s media and consider the insights provided.
Review the other types of psychotherapy presented in this course and select the one that resonates with you the most at this time
Note: For this Discussion, you are required to complete your initial post before you will be able to view and respond to your colleagues’ postings. Begin by clicking on the “Post to Discussion Question” link and then select “Create Thread” to complete your initial post. Remember, once you click Submit, you cannot delete or edit your own posts, and cannot post anonymously. Please check your post carefully before clicking Submit!
By Day 3
Post a summary of the psychotherapy that you selected and explain why it resonates with you the most at this time. Then compare the psychotherapy you selected with existential-humanistic therapy. What are the strengths and challenges of each type of psychotherapy? Describe a fictional client that you think would be best suited for the therapy you selected and one fictional client you think would be best suited for existential-humanistic therapy. Explain why.Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

Note: Do not use a client’s actual name.
Note: Nurse practitioners must have strong oral communication skills. This Discussion is designed to help you hone these skills. When filming your Kaltura video, be sure to dress and speak in a professional manner.

Existential and humanistic approaches to the study of human behavior are often merged into
one, The Existential-Humanistic Approach, (Bugental & Bracke, 1992; Jones-Smith, 2012)
because the two approaches are considered to be maximally similar and minimally different
(Corey, 2005; Hoffman, 2006). Indeed, Sartre (1945) proclaimed, ‘‘Existentialism is a Humanism’’ (p. 1). Accordingly, Flynn (2006) has argued that existentialism is a humanistic philosophy
because it emphasizes the meaning-making capacity of a person in an inherently meaningless
world; conversely, humanistic psychology is rooted in and influenced by existential thought
(Bugental, 1963; Stumm, 2008). Efforts to reinforce the overlap between the two approaches
have resulted in a widespread endorsement and establishment of an integrated existentialhumanistic approach, readily observable in textbooks on introductory psychology and
counselling psychology. It is noteworthy, however, that crucial points of divergence exist
between the two theoretical orientations; and that articulation of these differences is necessary
to explicate that the integration of the two approaches is justified on the basis of similarities
Correspondence should be addressed to Christine N. Winston, M. Phil, Department of Psychology, Women’s
Christian College, 25 (Old no: 47), Srinivasa Nagar Main Road, Koyambedu, Chennai – 600 107, India. E-mail:
[email protected]
The Humanistic Psychologist, 43: 40–53, 2015
Copyright # Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association
ISSN: 0887-3267 print/1547-3333 online
DOI: 10.1080/08873267.2014.993067
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
rather than synonymity. Accordingly, one can endorse the existential tradition (but not
humanistic), the humanistic tradition (but not existential), or an integrated existentialhumanistic orientation.Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay
EXISTENTIAL AND HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY: A THEMATIC COMPARISON
Points of Convergence
A phenomenological orientation. Theorists who advocate the integration of existential
and humanistic approaches draw on the similarities between the two approaches such as their
shared emphasis on freedom, lived experience, and subjectivity (Hoffman, 2006). In other
words, both existential and humanistic psychology are phenomenological in their orientations
(Corey, 2005; Jones-Smith, 2012) valuing subjective experience over objective reality.
Accordingly, the two approaches have been jointly referred to as ‘‘the phenomenological
approach’’ (Jones-Smith, 2012; Misiak & Sexton, 1973). Consistent with such an orientation,
existentialists and humanists tend to be skeptical about man’s capacity to objectively experience
and understand reality; the influence of one’s subjectivity, even in the hard sciences, is
considered to be inevitable. Bugental (1963), for instance, has observed:
Physics itself has found that it must move beyond logical positivism … attention to process and the
experimenter’s interconnection with the experiment are beginning to be recognized as essential to the
further development of pure physics. How much more pertinent are they to psychology. (p. 564)
Kierkegaard (1846=1992), in his satirically titled book, Concluding Unscientific Postscript,
rejects the possibility of finding truth through ‘‘scientific,’’ objective, or empirical means;
‘‘truth,’’ he contends, ‘‘is subjectivity’’ (p. 278). In accordance with such a radically phenomenological orientation, Rogers (1961) considers subjective experience rather than reason or
‘‘objective’’ experimentations with reality to be a surer approximation of truth. It is this organismic valuing process that Rogers (1961) considers to be an essential sign of personal growth:
Experience is, for me, the highest authority. The touchstone of validity is my own experience. No
other person’s ideas, and none of my ideas, are as authoritative as my experience. It is to experience
that I must return again and again, to discover a closer approximation to truth as it is in the process of
becoming in me. (p. 23, italics in original)
Accordingly, in differentiating between the phenomenology implicit in existential and
humanist thought, Stumm (2008) notes that Rogers is more radical than his existential
counterparts in explicating the validity of a person’s phenomenological experience:Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay
Rogers supersedes in this respect many of the existential therapists who are often preoccupied with
their frame of reference (for example, that clients should be worried about certain ‘ultimate
concerns’), though they consider phenomenology as an indispensable fundamental of an existential
attitude. (p. 10)
EXISTENTIAL AND HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY 41
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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The existentialists, on the other hand, are divided on the subject of subjectivity. Heidegger (1927=
1962), for instance, dismissed Cartesian dualisms (e.g., subject vs. object), and emphasized the
inextricability of the Being and the world; hence, the hyphenated being-in-the-world. Sartre
(1956), however, contended that the Being is ontologically estranged from the world; and that all
that is available to the individual is one’s subjective experience and the freedom to create meaning
out of nothingness. Although the phenomenologies of Heidegger (1927=1962) and Sartre (1956) are
similar in that they are opposed to radical positivism, Heidegger’s hermeneutic phenomenology
differs from Sartre’s existential phenomenology, in that all meaning-making is understood as occurring within the context of one’s socio-cultural situation (the ‘‘they;’’ Heidegger, 1927=1962, p. 253).Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay
The quest for authenticity. Authenticity is a recurrent theme in existential and humanistic
literature; and has been variously labelled by different authors. Although there is much controversy, especially in the existential circles, as to whether authenticity is an indication of psychological health when compared to inauthenticity, existential and humanistic therapists seek to help
individuals live more authentically. Rogers (1961), for instance, considered psychotherapy to be
the process through which a person is facilitated ‘‘to be[come] the self that one truly is’’ (p. 163).
Maslow (1987) also believed that a person must be whatever one can be if he or she is to be at
peace with oneself. These ideals of authenticity can be traced back to existential philosophers
such as Kierkegaard, who wrote, ‘‘Be the self that one truly is’’ (Kierkegaard, 1849=1941,
p. 18) and Nietzsche who observed, ‘‘you should become who you are’’ (Nietzsche, 1882=
2008, p. 152). Heidegger’s (1927=1962) conceptualization of authenticity and inauthenticity
(in contrast to Sartre’s ‘‘bad’’ faith), however, are considered to be value-neutral concepts.
Inauthenticity or conformity to the ‘‘they’’ can also be adaptive because it provides a structure
of predetermined meanings within which the Dasein exists and operates. Conversely, authenticity necessitates the seizing of one’s Being, to become more fully a being-in-the-world and
to relate more authentically to the (entities in the) world. Heidegger (1927=1962) also emphasized the ‘‘givens’’ of human existence and the confines of the socio-cultural context within
which an individual must define his or her meaning. Sartre (1956), on the other hand, considered
man’s freedom to be a fundamental ontological condition; accordingly, he proposed that
authenticity entails the creation out of nothingness, one’s meaning for existence.
A gestalt attitude. ‘‘Man,’’ in existential and humanistic thought, ‘‘is the process that
supersedes the sum of his part functions’’ (Bugental, 1963, p. 564). Accordingly, psychologists
of both camps resist the dissection of human experience into ‘‘the ultimate units of behaviour’’
(Bugental, 1963, p. 564; conscious or unconscious; cognitive or affective; somatic or psychic)
and emphasize the dynamic holism of the organism. Existential and humanistic approaches
are similar, even in those aspects of human experience that they deemphasize. Stumm (2008),
for instance, has noted that ‘‘there is no assumption of the unconscious as an agent’’ (p. 10)
in existential or humanistic therapy. Similarly, the two approaches also dismiss the supremacy
of rationality in accessing, understanding, and bettering the human experience. It is noteworthy,
however, that the phenomenological approaches are ‘‘non-rational’’ and not ‘‘irrational’’ in their
orientations (Fox, 2009, p. 19); it is indeed paradoxical that many of the existential greats, who
explicated the limits of human reason, are considered to be some of the finest thinkers, philosophers, and intellectuals, ever known to man. May’s (1992) Cry for Myth is indeed another ready
example of defiance against mainstream intellectualism; myths, despite being ‘‘non-rational’’Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay
and empirically untestable, are considered to be neither false nor defunct. Myths can be
42 WINSTON
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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
regressive, May (1992) contends, but they are also the very fibers with which a person weaves a
coherent fabric of identity and meaning. In Jung’s (1912) words, ‘‘We can keep from a child all
knowledge of earlier myths; but we cannot take from him the need for mythology’’ (as cited in
Myers, 1992, p. 417).
Existential and humanistic thinkers have always been critical of medical models and
biological reductionism. Accordingly, proponents of the two approaches resist the use of clinical
labels because they are considered to be counterproductive. Labels, diagnostic or otherwise, tend
to act as self-fulfilling prophecies; ‘‘Call a client a patient, and he is liable to act like one’’
(Kirschenbaum, 2007, p. 112). Rogers (1951) further cautions that diagnostic labels can
inadvertently reinforce helplessness and dependency in the client. He writes, ‘‘The client
[who] perceives the locus of judgment and responsibility as clearly resting in the hands of the
clinician … is further from therapeutic progress than when he came in’’ (p. 223). Further, labels
depersonalize and objectify human experience and are, therefore, incongruent with the phenomenological orientation (Stumm, 2008). Indeed, Bugental (1963) considers the widely-held
assumption that a diagnosis is a prerequisite to treatment to be a ‘‘fallacy’’ (p. 566) and suggests
a more effective alternative:Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay
Diagnostic information is knowledge about the patient, the most effective psychotherapy requires
knowledge of the patient. This is more than a play on words. Knowledge about a patient treats
the patient as an object, or a thing to be studied and manipulated. Knowledge of the patient recognizes the patient’s essential humanity and individuality. (p. 567, italics in original)
The holism of Karl Jaspers’ (who also explicated the insufficiency of clinical labels), an
approach that has been called ‘‘biological existentialism’’ (Ghaemi, 2008), however, rejects both
biological reductionism and radical phenomenology. Jaspersian psychologists recognize the
necessity of biomedical models as well as phenomenological methods in treating physical and
mental illnesses. Ghamei (2008), however, cautions that Jaspers’ approach to psychiatry and
psychology is not ‘‘eclectic,’’ but rather ‘‘pluralistic’’ (Ghaemi, 2008); the treatment ought to
be tailored to each person and the presenting illness (which according to the Jaspers’
classification may either be a biological illness or problems of living). In other words, one size
does not fit all; effective treatment of mental illness necessitates biologically based treatments
(medicine) as well as phenomenological therapies (existential-humanism; Ghaemi, 2008).
Points of Divergence
Despite the many similarities between the two approaches, existential and humanistic
psychology require stronger differentiation because there are, indeed, points of divergence in
their theoretical orientations and views of human nature (Stumm, 2008). Accordingly, some
have proposed that existential psychology is concerned with the ‘‘dark and bleak’’ aspects of
human experience, such as anxiety and death (Bootzin, Acocella, & Alloy, 1993); humanistic
psychology focuses on the positive aspects of human experience, such as growth and
self-actualization (Cozen, 2008; Hoffman, 2006). Others have observed that, in contrast to
humanists who believe that people are ‘‘basically good’’ (Rogers, 1961), existentialists, in
recognizing man’s potentialities for growth and greatness, as well as for evil and destruction,
make no assumptions about the essential goodness or badness of human nature.Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

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Humanistic psychology focuses on helping people achieve their potential. So it makes sense that the goal of humanistic therapy is to help people become more self-aware and accepting of themselves. In contrast to psychoanalysis, humanistic therapists focus on conscious rather than unconscious thoughts. They also emphasize the patient’s present and future, as opposed to exploring the patient’s past.

Psychologist Carl Rogers developed a therapeutic orientation known as Rogerian, or client-centered therapy (also sometimes called person-centered therapy or PCT). Note the change from patients to clients. Rogers (1951) felt that the term patient suggested the person seeking help was sick and looking for a cure. Since this is a form of nondirective therapy, a therapeutic approach in which the therapist does not give advice or provide interpretations but helps the person to identify conflicts and understand feelings, Rogers (1951) emphasized the importance of the person taking control of his own life to overcome life’s challenges.

In client-centered therapy, the therapist uses the technique of active listening. In active listening, the therapist acknowledges, restates, and clarifies what the client expresses. Therapists also practice what Rogers called unconditional positive regard, which involves not judging clients and simply accepting them for who they are. Rogers (1951) also felt that therapists should demonstrate genuineness, empathy, and acceptance toward their clients because this helps people become more accepting of themselves, which results in personal growth.Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

Psychotherapy: Mindfulness
One age-old practice that has seen a resurgence in popularity in recent years is mindfulness. Mindfulness is a process that tries to cultivate a nonjudgmental, yet attentive, mental state. It is a therapy that focuses on one’s awareness of bodily sensations, thoughts, and the outside environment. Whereas other therapies work to modify or eliminate these sensations and thoughts, mindfulness focuses on non-judgmentally accepting them (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Baer, 2003). For example, whereas CBT may actively confront and work to change a maladaptive thought, mindfulness therapy works to acknowledge and accept the thought, understanding that the thought is spontaneous and not what the person truly believes. There are two important components of mindfulness: (1) self-regulation of attention, and (2) orientation toward the present moment (Bishop et al., 2004). Mindfulness is thought to improve mental health because it draws attention away from past and future stressors, encourages acceptance of troubling thoughts and feelings, and promotes physical relaxation.Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

Psychologists have adapted the practice of mindfulness as a form of psychotherapy, generally called mindfulness-based therapy (MBT). Several types of MBT have become popular in recent years, including mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) (e.g., Kabat-Zinn, 1982) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) (e.g., Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2002).

MBSR uses meditation, yoga, and attention to physical experiences to reduce stress. The hope is that reducing a person’s overall stress will allow that person to more objectively evaluate his or her thoughts. In MBCT, rather than reducing one’s general stress to address a specific problem, attention is focused on one’s thoughts and their associated emotions. For example, MBCT helps prevent relapses in depression by encouraging patients to evaluate their own thoughts objectively and without value judgment (Baer, 2003). Although cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) may seem similar to this, it focuses on “pushing out” the maladaptive thought, whereas mindfulness-based cognitive therapy focuses on “not getting caught up” in it.Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

Treatment for Addiction
Addiction and substance abuse disorders are difficult to treat because chronic substance use can permanently alter the neural structure in the prefrontal cortex, an area of the brain associated with decision-making and judgment, thus driving a person to use drugs and/or alcohol (Muñoz-Cuevas, Athilingam, Piscopo, & Wilbrecht, 2013). This helps explain why relapse rates tend to be high. About 40%–60% of individuals relapse, which means they return to abusing drugs and/or alcohol after a period of improvement (National Institute on Drug Abuse [NIDA], 2008).

The goal of substance-related treatment is to help an addicted person stop compulsive drug-seeking behaviors (NIDA, 2012). This means an addicted person will need long-term treatment, similar to a person battling a chronic physical disease such as hypertension or diabetes. Treatment usually includes behavioral therapy and/or medication, depending on the individual (NIDA, 2012). Specialized therapies have also been developed for specific types of substance-related disorders, including alcohol, cocaine, and opioids (McGovern & Carroll, 2003). Substance-related treatment is considered much more cost-effective than incarceration or not treating those with addictions (NIDA, 2012).Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

A photograph shows a person injecting heroin intravenously with a hypodermic needle into her ankle.
Figure 2. Substance use and abuse costs the United States over $600 billion a year (NIDA, 2012). This addict is using heroin. (credit: “jellymc – urbansnaps”/Flickr)

Specific factors make substance-related treatment much more effective. One factor is duration of treatment. Generally, the addict needs to be in treatment for at least three months to achieve a positive outcome (Simpson, 1981; Simpson, Joe, & Bracy, 1982; NIDA, 2012). This is due to the psychological, physiological, behavioral, and social aspects of abuse (Simpson, 1981; Simpson et al., 1982; NIDA, 2012).While individual therapy is used in the treatment of substance-related disorders, group therapy is the most widespread treatment modality (Weiss, Jaffee, de Menil, & Cogley, 2004). The rationale behind using group therapy for addiction treatment is that addicts are much more likely to maintain sobriety in a group format. It has been suggested that this is due to the rewarding and therapeutic benefits of the group, such as support, affiliation, identification, and even confrontation (Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2005).Treatment also usually involves medications to detox the addict safely after an overdose, to prevent seizures and agitation that often occur in detox, to prevent reuse of the drug, and to manage withdrawal symptoms. Getting off drugs often involves the use of drugs—some of which can be just as addictive. Detox can be difficult and dangerous.Frequently, a person who is addicted to drugs and/or alcohol has comorbid disorders, meaning they may have additional diagnoses of other psychological disorders. In cases of comorbidity, the best treatment is thought to address both (or multiple) disorders simultaneously (NIDA, 2012). Behavior therapies are used to treat comorbid conditions, and in many cases, medications are used along with psychotherapy.Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay

This essay will first provide two summaries in relation to the existential and the cognitive behaviour therapy approaches to fear and sadness. Then, it will demonstrate a comparison between the two approaches, including explanations about the focus on the current time malfunctioning of the client, and the concern about overcoming the negative ways of thinking that a suffering clients has, in both kind of counselling. Also, about the difference between the two approaches in many other points, such as the use of a framework or not, how much the therapist and the client take part in the therapeutic work, how the two approaches see sadness and fear and how much they depend on a diagnosis, also the ways they manage anxiety and depression. Existential psychotherapies are based on the ideas of the existential philosophy, which does not have specific technics for explaining the psychological disorders. Thus, this practice is vague, and demand the practitioner to be creative and deeply involved with the philosophy, (Langdridge, 2010, p132). The philosophy is a source of many ideas on the existence of human, and on how to manage the difficulties of life and death. It also has universal aspects, which make the core principles of the practice, such as that people are unique and ever changing beings, without fixed underlying personality or diagnoses. Also, that people have free choices, a limited and anxious existence, and are bound by the ability of their bodies and the four Comparing Existential-Humanistic Therapy to Other Types of Therapy Essay